Why Do Religions Exist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Why Do Religions Exist - Essay Example In Sri Lanka, a Buddhist Monk walks effortlessly along a pebbled pathway meditating in a Monastery garden. At the same time, a prophet in Israel announces the coming of the ‘Day of the Lord.’ Such activities have been going on for many years, and they are likely to continue for longer (Houtman, 2010). Scholars have been trying to explore and comprehend the idea about religion, Nevertheless, for a long time, they have not been able to state precisely what religion is. They have always tried to define religion but always come up with less satisfying results. Regardless of how carefully they define the concept of religion, others will always indicate what the definition has left out (Evans, 1985). When someone poses a question, what religion is, one may point to a church, a mosque, a temple, a Sikh Gurdwara or any other sacred place of worship and claim that people who go to this places are religious. He will draw attention to the places of worship and the people who go the re. He will also site sacred texts such as the Bible and the Koran. Many have tried to understand religion based on its effect on society and individual persons. Scholars have been trying to explain the universal existence of religion in all cultures. Every culture has some system of supernatural beliefs; however, it is not possible to prove beyond doubt that any supernatural powers such as gods, witches, angels or devils exist. Moreover, these supernatural powers do not always work as effectively as practitioners want. For instance, praying to God for the recovery of a sick person but the person dies, a ritual specialist conducts a rain dance, but it still does not rain: or relatives sacrificing a goat at the gravesite of the ancestor-god, but drought still destroys them (James, 2008). Nonetheless, disengaging certain characteristics from the totality of human life and labeling it as religion receives considerable support by the fact that such gestures are clearly different from or dinary ways of behaving. Religious activities often take place in an artificially contrived time, space or a certain mode of consciousness. Liturgical calendars’, Sacred places, meditative moods, extraordinary fasting, exceptional communal or private actions, meditating, sacrificing, prophesying, praying, self-denial are some of the gestures that give a notion of being a stylized divergence from normality. They all have a quality of caricature, play-acting, and sometimes unnaturalness. They stand out so obviously from every day such that they are difficult to avoid. They have a special name, and that is ‘religion’. However, there is no single anniversary accepted definition of religion (Evans, 1985). Experts disagree with regard to the definition so much that religion is one thing to Anthropologist, another to the Sociologist and Another to the psychologist. Consequently, there is a great variety of religious theories of the nature of religion. Definition of reli gion can be too broad and may include what dominates or appear to be the ultimate concern in the human life; Children, Home, Work Entertainment among others. Religion can also mean to bid worshippers to the deity by observance of cultish ceremonies and acts of devotion. Max Weber argues that trying to define religion as a scholar of religion at the start is a mistake.  

Xbox Introduction of Kinect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Xbox Introduction of Kinect - Essay Example It makes game controllers reduce their use of buttons and makes gaming as fast and efficient as possible. The add-on interprets voice commands and allows its users to easily play games in the absence of a game controller (Webb & Ashley, 2012). The devise also senses the movements of its user and also allow them to bark orders. Microsoft also plans to set living room chats with its Kinect product introduced in the market. Microsoft, therefore, intended to use the Kinect to face the competition from other forms of entertainment including music players, mobile phones as well as tablets. In developing the product, Microsoft used a number of methodologies. The company used the E3 convention for video games to announce its products and expansion strategies. It announced the addition of the Kinect add-on for the Xbox 360 to boost entertainment for video game players. Microsoft used social events as ways of market the product. The use of the Xbox 360 to announce events as sports was a major way of developing the product. This included the national basketball association and other events as the national hockey league. The leagues made their programming packages available to fans using the Xbox live. This increased the use of Xbox 360 and consequently the Kinect add-on for the gadget.... Microsoft also used the annual expo for electronic entertainment to market its product. The company showcased its new market entries. The announcement by Microsoft to link with Nike to launch a training program for fitness by the use of Kinect was among the ways in which Microsoft developed the product. Through the device, the fitness of a person is detectable. The company also used the international consumer electronic shows to develop their Kinect product in the market. Laying down formal rules to allow legitimate commercial use of the product was a great methodology used by Microsoft. These include the Kinect-centric experiments geared at reaching a significant share of the market for the product. The use of the product from Microsoft to enable live advertising was a significant step in developing the product. This was through the use of interactive NUads supported by Kinect. The use of Kinect in classroom also formed a significant market among students. Students could use it to l earn by collaborating in projects through the support of avatars. This supported distance learning. Through the different ways of developing the product, it garnered considerable market dominance. It was among the products of the company that made the highest sales within the fastest time after its introduction into the market (Walker, 2012). The development of the product, therefore, was successful given the high sales realized within the shortest time. The sophisticated nature of the software rendered it unbearable for hackers to interfere with the components. The fancy video cameras present in the device put off its hackers. It also had a depth sensor that was sophisticated for hackers to duplicate. Since all the properties of

Content analysis - have gun will travel Research Paper

Content analysis - have gun will travel - Research Paper Example The stories were both hero myths and tales of American perseverance and fortitude. The Western hero represented a male ideal that could only have existed in a lawless world, but who represented the organized powers of the American government which was invulnerable to enemies both foreign and domestic. The gun as a source of power was also representative of the technological superiority of American industrialization (Tucker & Tucker, 2008). The United States had undergone great strife during the time that the Western genre was in its height. The image of the Western hero proposed a foundation of historic strength through which the American self concept was reinforced. The following paper will look at the nature of the Western as it related to the national civic imagery through which patriotic pride was built and sustained. The radio program that had been inspired by the television program was a textual promotion of the symbols that appeared on the television program, the might of the American righteousness promoted without regard to authority or law. The radio program Have Gun, Will Travel was popular because of how the American mythologies were built as reflection of the philosophical foundation upon which the American myths have been perpetuated. In the 1920s the radio was the center of the first burst of information consumption in the United States. Both news and entertainment could come directly into the homes of the masses, creating a world that was just beginning to grow smaller merely through access. Ware (2009) writes of several different perspectives on the effects of the radio. Some believed that the radio worked as a medium through which to perpetuate stereotypes, the concept of cultural differences boiled down to indicators through which to identify everyone within a culture. There was also the fear that it would act to flatten the nation, geographical

Looking Glass Self Essay Example for Free

Looking Glass Self Essay In the most basic terms the Looking Glass self is your self image which is formed by the views others hold of you. These views the people around you have can have either a positive or negative effect on your self imagine. First we picture how our personality and appearance will come off to others, and then we think about how they will judge our personality and appearance. As people around us pass judgment on who we are this is when our self-concept develops, basically who we think we are and how we feel about ourselves as a whole. These judgments’ can have a powerful effect on ones beliefs and feelings about themselves. I’ve felt and been effected by the beliefs another person has about me. When I was in the 8th grade I thought I was a wonderful student, smart, well behaved. I felt as though my teachers all thought the same way. Then one day my homeroom teacher called me stupid for missing a homework assignment. To be called out in front of the class like that was horrifying. Though that wasn’t the only time an incidence like that occurred. In the 9th grade I struggled with math. I did poorly on tests, I already lacked confidence in the subject and it took one day with a substitute teacher to shatter it completely. I will never forget the words she said to me â€Å"Why can’t you finish the test? Are you stupid? † As child of any age, those words are damaging to the way you feel about yourself, and the way you think others perceive you. â€Å"Tell a child he’s stupid enough times and eventually hell start believing you, claims Benj Vardigan, with the Behavioral Institute. When a child makes mistakes or doesn’t understand a concept, his knee-jerk reaction may be to conclude that he’s stupid. Take that one step further and watch a child stop trying to understand or stop trying to learn a concept because he automatically assumes he can’t figure it out. † (Hatter) In A Class Divided on of the first examples of looking glass self that I picked up on was when the children came back in from recess after fighting. Mrs. Elliot asks â€Å"What’s wrong with being called brown eyes? † and a little  boy, Roy, says â€Å"It means we’re stupider and – well, not that†¦Ã¢â‚¬  It’s immediate how the effect of this experiment took hold. These children took to heart what their teacher, Mrs. Elliot had said, that brown eyed children are less than blue eyed children, they aren’t as smart or as well behaved. In the first day of the lesson the effects on their peers perception of them had caused so much turmoil that it caused one child to hit another, clearly the negative aspect of looking glass. In the Teaching Adults section, Mrs. Elliott describes how she gave tests before during and after the lesson on discrimination. Telling the audience that the student test scores raise on the day they are on top, scores drop when they are on the bottom and after the experiment the children’s testing scores maintain a higher level. She attributed this to the children discovering how good they are. I believe instilling a positive self-imagine in a child is one of the most important things a parent, or teacher can do. â€Å"Whether self-concept is positive or negative can influence important areas of a childs development and achievement. Educators have recognized that there is a link between self-concept and performance in school. Students with a strong self-concept tend to have good grades and take an active role in school. They are able to accept challenges and enjoy new learning experiences. Students with a negative self-concept tend to have both attitude and behavior problems. They may be unwilling to try new things, because they believe they will fail anyway, or they may not work up to their potential. Some educators feel that a positive self-concept is so important that children need to be taught to like themselves before they are taught academic skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics. † (Myers-Walls and Hinkley)

Debussys Petit Suite Essay Example for Free

Debussys Petit Suite Essay Claude Debussy (1862-1918) was one of the most important composers of his time and is considered the founder of the impressionist movement, essentially a one-person revolution. Born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Debussy was the eldest of five children of a crockery shop owner and a seamstress. Despite early dreams of becoming a virtuoso pianist, Debussy found greater success working as a composer, producing his first works as a teenager. His first piano work was written at age 18, and within a few years, he was composing symphonies, cantatas and operas. The origin of the his impressionistic music stemmed from the Impressionistic art of compatriots- Monet, Renoir, Manet, and others, with the tendency to hint at an idea rather than state boldly, to feature color and atmosphere over Germanic clarity. The piano remained his main instrument and he ultimately became best known for his mature works for the instrument. His piano music is distinctive for its luminous tonal colors and often evoke an other-wordly and ethereal sense. This is a result of his skillful use of parallel chords, treatments of layers of refined sound, unresolved harmonies, unusual pedal effects, free modulatory procedures, and full exploitation of the piano’s resources. Debussy was only 24 years old when he began working on the 4-hand Petite Suite. The charming 4-movement suite was written about the same time as his two Arabesques for piano, conjuring a similar sense of lightness and delicacy, as well as conveying the same immediate charm. The work was originally conceived for piano, but was later re-scored for full orchestras. The reworking of Petite Suite for orchestra was accomplished not by Debussy himself, but by Henri Boesser, a slightly younger French composer who was noted for his orchestration skills. In its original form for piano, Petite Suite was first performed on February 2, 1889 by Debussy in collaboration with the pianist-publisher Jacques Durand. Transcriptions for string quartet, flute solo, saxophone solos, and other instrumentations have been written and performed. This works has a simple lyricism that contrasts with much of the composers music from the late 1880s Like the paintings of the Impressionists, most of Debussy’s music including the Petite Suite is inspired by the outdoors, suggesting moods and giving glimpses of nature. For Debussy, music always began where words and sight left off. The first movements of Debussy’s Petite Suite of 1889 are drawn from two poems of Verlaine’s 1869 volume Fà ªtes galantes. The poems evoke the era of 18th-century aristocrats on country outings, the world depicted in the fanciful paintings of Fragonard and Watteau. En Bateau is one of the composer’s â€Å"water pieces’ presenting a delicate theme reminiscent of Faure rippling accompaniment. It suggests revelers in a boat have their minds on romantic trysts as they sail at dusk on a dark lake. Debussy’s music captures perfectly a mood of water-borne serenity and languor, opening with a kind of musical sigh that made the Petite Suite immediately popular with a wide audience. The next movement, entitled Cortge, Procession conveys the idea that boat revelers are playfully making their way along a promenade to retire from the boat ride. The third movement Menuet, triple metered dance, and fourth, Ballet although not set to a particular poem articulate broadly the nostalgia and the sparkle held in balance throughout the poems of Fà ªtes galantes. The final movement is an energetic, festive dance movement with the title Ballet.

Introduction Globalization And Expatriation Management Essay

Introduction Globalization And Expatriation Management Essay Literature review is a summary of past paper that conducted by the previous researchers and explanation about the terms involve during this study. It aims on the critical points of current knowledge on a particular topic. This chapter is important because it can be a guideline on how the study can be done. Simon Reich states that, globalization constitutes a multiplicity of linkages and interconnections that transcend the nation states (and by implication the societies) which make up the modern world system. It defines a process through which events, decisions and activities in one part of the world can come to have a significant consequence for individuals and communities in quite distant parts of the globe. According Laurence E. Rothenberg, globalization is the acceleration and intensification of interaction and integration among the people, companies and governments of different nations. According to Farhad Nezhad Haj Ali Irani globalization typically refers to the process by which different economies and societies become more closely integrated, and concurrent with increasing worldwide globalization, there has been much research into its consequences According to Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, globalization is a process by which the experience of everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, is becoming standardized around the world. Factors that have contributed to globalization include increasingly sophisticated communications and transportation technologies and services, mass migration and the movement of peoples, a level of economic activity that has outgrown national markets through industrial combinations and commercial groupings that cross national frontiers and international agreements that reduce the cost of doing business in foreign countries. Defined broadly, globalization is the process of integrating nations and peoples-politically, economically, and culturally-into a larger community (Gale Encyclopedia of US Foreign Policy). With business becoming increasingly global, employees with international experience have become an increasing important issue for multinational corporations (Hyder and LÃ ¶ vblad, 2007). We live in a world in which barriers to cross border trade and investment are declining. Transportation and telecommunication technologies are constantly making the world feel smaller. Material culture seems similar the world over; and national economies are merging into an interdependent, integrated and global economic system. Globalization is the reason for this incredible shift (Hills, 2007). It is a process that describes the integration of the world community into a common social or economic community. In laymans terms, globalization means the free flow of goods and services across borders (Joanne Claire Miranda, 2009). Globalization has resulted not just in goods and services travelling across borders. It has also resulted in people moving across borders for better employment opportunities and thus better wages (Joanne Claire Miranda, 2009). Due to that, it gives positive and negative effects. Positively, people move easily to benefit from their skills and experience. Firms are able to enter new market. Negatively, however, as firms enter these new industries or markets, they lack the skills and expertise required for that industry and they face not only the challenge of sourcing for the right candidate but also there is no guarantee that there would be continuity of service by the skilled staff. The right candidate should be able to work in the present environment as well as be able to teach the team members. If this is not managed properly, it may well become firms biggest obstacle. In order for these companies to have the competitive edge in this global marketplace, they need to have the right p erson at the right posting (Hills, 2007). The effects of globalization have resulted in the number of expatriates rising in the developing countries including Malaysia. When Aida and Maimunah did their study on Cross Cultural Challenges and Adjustment among Expatriates in Malaysia, 1999 (Aida and Maimunah, 2007) the number of expatriates they reported was 21,859, a figure they obtained from the Immigration Statistics. In October 2007, the immigration record showed the total number of expatriates in Malaysia is at 35, 583. Expatriation in Malaysia is not a new phenomenon. The country has gone through three waves or phases of incoming expatriates. The first group of expatriates that came to Malaysia is the Britons. They were found in private sector and big organizations such as Shell, ICI, Dunlop, Guthries, Harrison and Crosfield and British Petroleum. Other than that, in the government sector, the expatriates are mainly posted as advisors, diplomats, academics and technical specialists. The second phase of expatriates came from United States of America and other European countries whom were assigned in large multinationals such as, Phillips, Siemens, Volvo, Nestle and Esso. Finally, the third wave of expatriates came to Malaysia which were mainly represented by the Asian group of managers mainly from Japan, Taiwan and Korea along with some other European and American expatriates. This third wave resulted from the Look East policy by the Government in 1980s as well as due to closer relations with Austra lia and the Newly Industrialized Countries in Asia specifically, along with the high growth of electronics industry in Malaysia. (Aida and Maimunah, 2000) 2.2 Expatriation Cycle 2.1.1 Pre-departure The pre-departure phase involved effective selection and preparation of expatriate. Most often expatriates are selected from within the corporation. The rationale is that current managers possess the technical expertise and they are more in sync with the companys culture. (Maali H. Ashamalla, 1998) According to Luftans and Doh, making an effective selection decision for an overseas assignment can prove to be a major problem. Typically, this decision is based on international selection criteria which are factors used to choose international characters. Those criteria are:- a) Adaptability to cultural change Overseas managers must be able to adapt to change. They also need the degree of cultural toughness. Research shows that many managers exhilarated at the beginning of their assignment. After a few months, however, a form of culture shock creeps in. b) Physical and emotional health Most organizations require that their overseas managers have good physical and emotional health. The psychological ability of individuals to with-stand culture shock also would be considered as would the current marital status as it affects the individuals ability to cope in a foreign environment. c) Age, experience and education There is evidence that younger managers are more eager for international assignments because they tend to be more worldly and have a greater appreciation of other cultures than older managers do. On top of that, many companies consider an academic degree, preferably a graduate degree to be of critical importance to an international executive. d) Language training Language can be a very critical factor and international experts have referred to it as a most effective indirect method of learning about a country. e) Motivation for foreign assignment Although individuals being sent overseas should have a desire to work abroad, this is usually is not sufficient motivation. Experts believe that candidate also must believe in the importance of the job. Other than that, applicants who are unhappy with their current situation, desire for adventure or a pioneering spirit, desire to increase ones chance for promotion and the opportunity to improve ones economic status are also viewed as great motivators. f) Spouses and dependents or work-family issues Experts believe that if the family is not happy, the manager often performs poorly and may either be terminated or simply decide to leave the organization. However, according to Maali H, Ashamalia, qualities that are looked for are:- a) Cultural empathy The ability to appreciate and respect beliefs, values, behaviors and business practices of individuals and groups from other culture. b) Awareness of environment constraint In a foreign country, an expatriate is faced with unfamiliar sets of environmental forces that can be very different from those of the home country. Ability to identify forces and function within their constraints becomes instrumental to the expatriates for effective decision making. c) Interpersonal skills These skills involve effective verbal and non-verbal communications, the capacity to build trust and the ability to utilize referent power in managing within a foreign environment. It also involved the understanding of differences in value orientations such as in the power distance orientation identified by Hofstede. d) Managerial and Decision Making abilities It is highly required particularly when a manager is operating under conditions of isolation or physical distances from the centre of decision making in the home office. These competencies are also necessary in situations where expatriates have full autonomy in their foreign positions. e) Other crucial qualities Foreign language proficiency, flexibility, adaptability, entrepreneurship, self-motivation, tolerance for ambiguity, and sensitivity to world events and their impact on long-range perspectives of the business are considered as crucial qualities for expatriates selection. Other than that, Ashamalla also argued that a rigorous selection program should also include the utilization of appropriate selection devices, consideration of the candidates self-evaluation, time devoted for the selection process where it must be adequate and strategic evaluation of the overseas operations on a frequent basis. The selection plan should also include the expatriate family. In addition, intensity of intercultural relation, pre-departure preparation, cultural training, multicultural personality, and technical competent and socio cultural knowledge is vital in order to determine expatriate, spouse and family adjustment effectiveness (Awang-Rozaimie, 2011) 2.1.2 During Assignment Support during the assignment is believed to be essential for moral and psychological sustenance as well as for performance effectiveness of international managers. Superiors and HR professionals in the home office need to give adequate consideration to the importance of keeping in close touch with their expatriates and providing them and their families with the needed support. A major source of concern for the manager while abroad is the loss of visibility to those in the home office. Sense of isolation from the domestic realities of the firm and feelings of being away for the corporate centers of the power are other sources of concern for managers while on overseas assignments. During assignment, support may involve a wide range of formal and informal activities. (Maali H. Ashamalla, 1998) On the other hands, the Brookfields Global Relocation Trends Survey 2010 indicated that, six percent of international assignments fail. Therefore, it is essential for expatriates to understand specific psychological traits of Malaysian that contributed to their business performance. Primarily, cultural competency support expatriates psychological well-being and socio cultural adaptabilities (Awang- Rozaimie, 2011) However, adapting to the new environment takes several months. A model developed by Oberg (1960) describes expatriate adaptation as a four-phases process. These phases are honeymoon, culture shock, recovery and adjustment. Going through these phases in the long run results into successful adaptation in the new environment (Teodora G. Nikolaeva, 2010) Table 1: Obergs phases of adaptation a) Honeymoon The first phase of this process is the so called honeymoon phase (Oberg, 1960). This stage usually lasts from several days to several weeks and is characterized by the positive attitude of the expatriates about the host country, its culture and everything new they are meeting. In this stage the employees feel more like tourists than expatriates. They are excited by the new and are really enthusiastic about their job. The expatriates are intrigued and curious about everything that is different from what they are used to and at the same time amazed by cultural similarities. All of this is a result of the pleasant conditions the expatriates are offered upon their arrival. They stay in luxurious hotels where they communicate with compatriots or natives who speak their language or perhaps they have even been appointed a translator; They are busy with being shown the sights of the town, finding an accommodation, school for the children if they are accompanied by their families, and depending on the significance of the international assignment they can e ven be giving press interviews (Oberg, 1960). b) Culture Shock As previously mentioned the honeymoon stage lasts from several days to several weeks. After this period is over, the expatriates get hit by the new culture and everything they have found amusing until now starts being irritating which results in culture shock (Oberg 1960). Oberg (1960) defines this phenomenon as the occupational disease the expatriates experience because of the constant interaction with the new environment and the different situations the host country offers: Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. These signs or cues include the thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to the situations of daily life: when to shake hands and what to say when we meet people, when and how to give tips, how to give orders to servants, how to make purchases, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take statements seriously and when not. Now these cues which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, customs, or norms are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak or the beliefs we accept. All of us depend for our peace of mind and our efficiency on hundreds of these cues, most of which we do not carry on the level of conscious awareness. All expatriates can be affected by culture shock, but the degree to which they suffer depends from the host country and its specific cultural characteristics, the personality of the employees and how effective they are in doing their job, their attitude towards the people from the host country and vice versa, and the significance of the international assignment Depending on these factors, culture shock can result into confusion about ones actions, anxiety, frustration, exhilaration, actions that do not suit the norms of behavior, inability to do ones job and thus not being able to sign an important deal, isolation and depression (Teodora G. Nikolaeva, 2010). c) Recovery In the recovery stage the individuals start dealing with their emotions and create a positive attitude towards the surrounding people and environment of the host country (Oberg 1960). As previously mentioned, learning the language is a beneficial factor in understanding the foreign culture. If the expatriates have gained some knowledge of the language, they are able to communicate with their colleagues and instead of criticizing them they start making jokes of them and even start being sarcastic about their dire straits. In addition to that, the employees accept that they have some problems and start asking for help from their coworkers and gradually reaching the last phase of their adaptation (Oberg 1960). d) Adjustment The final phase of the adaptation model is adjustment. At this point all the six aspects of the culture shock are gone and the expatriates are able to perform their job in the most effective way. This is due to the fact that they start accepting and adapting to the new environment. The food, the drinks, the people and the customs that used to be perceived as foreign are now seen as delightful and enjoyable; The individuals become so accustomed to the country and the people so when the assignment is over and they return home, they start missing all that which at some point of their stay was irritating and even disgusting (Oberg, 1960). 2.1.3 Repatriation Luftans and Doh defined repatriation as the return to ones home country from an overseas management assignment. The most common reason for expatriation is that the duty is over. However, other reasons might be expatriates want their children educated in a home-country school, they are not happy with their overseas assignment and failure to do a good job. Ashamalla argued that there is evidence that indicate repatriation is not simple and that a repatriate manager may experience professional as well as personal re-entry problems. 2.3 Factors contribute to challenges faced by expatriates There are many factors that could be the reason of the challenges faced by the expatriate. These factors are realized through the flow of expatriation cycle. 2.3.1 Selection does not based on IHRM guidelines. According to Bonache, Brewster and Suutari, decisions on expatriate selection are usually made in a less than organized and coherent manner, and often take by line managers who simply ignore the laid-down criteria espoused by the HR department. They prefer to draw from a restricted pool of candidates about whom they feel confident; often people like themselves or those among that group who are readily available or have shown some interest in an international element to their career. 2.3.2 Accepting international assignment for the wrong reasons. Some expatriates were thinking of moving abroad in an effort to leave behind the accumulation of frustration, misery or boredom in the current life. Others might accept the international assignment due to their own expectation and assumption based on the experience they had when visiting to that country for a holiday. Due to that, they will face difficulties when reality or the situation does not meet their expectation. 2.3.3 Inability to adapt Cultural surprises, shock, discomfort, difficulties, stress and incompetence occurred due to inconsistent expectation and inability to acquire appropriate cultural knowledge and skills of host culture. Incompetence or disability of expatriates to adapt and adjust their cultural mindset caused early return, incomplete assignment goal and put additional cost to organization for replacement of new personnel. 2.3.4 Family issues It is generally the trailing spouse who suffers the greatest culture shock in the new country. The result can be an unhappy spouse who does her best to impair the performance of the expatriate manager. Most expatriate managers are challenged and excited to be in their new postings. They need to spend a lot of time at work since they are under pressure to adapt to the new culture and their overall responsibilities are often larger than they have experienced before. As a result, the wives of expatriates spend a lot of time by themselves and are cut-off from their own family and friends. At the same time, the wife is usually dealing with problems for which she has no previous experience. Therefore, the challenges expatriates faced during expatriation could be precipitate from the pressure from home 2.3.5 The location of the assignment The location of the international assignment can determine the challenges faced by expatriate. Commonly, expatriates come from well developed countries; due to globalization and the demand of global market, developing countries, mostly from South East Asia, have a high demand for expatriate. The differences between the culture of the expatriates home country and expatriation location will present cross cultural challenges to expatriates. 2.4 Challenges Commonly Faced by Expatriates Pre Departure 2.4.1 Preparation for departure doesnt seem enough. Due to the fact that management chose the candidate for expatriation based on their preference with disregard of IHRM guidelines, it does not only affect the staff but the family member as well. Firstly, the spouse usually questions whether the decision to move abroad is really the best decision for them. On Assignment 2.4.2 Communication and language barriers They are expected to master the local language and culture, especially because more and more local workers may have the competitive advantage of local knowledge and connections, as well as strong English skills acquired while studying abroad. Other than that, expatriate faced difficulty in communication within the first few weeks and to some, it took several months to adjust. 2.4.3 Adjusting to the local working culture Every country has different working culture. Therefore, expatriates might find it challenging to understand how things work in the office in a manner where they are trying to understand the administrative and bureaucratic arrangements. Most of the expatriates came from highly industrialized nations whereby people are used to living in the fast lane and having more established and efficient services. Since the previous working trend differs from the working style they are currently in, it posed as a challenge for most expatriates. 2.4.4 High level of bureaucracy People at the high management level of their hierarchical positions acquire strong control over the issues at the workplace. Therefore, it affects the flow of work among the locals and the expatriates. Decision making processes and duration of task completion took longer than expected. This was a challenge that expatriates encountered which required some skills of cross cultural negotiations to adjust and to overcome any related problems arise. Generally, the locals working habit seemed to collide with the expatriates working habits. Since most of expatriates were come from well-developed nation, their working pace is faster and planning becomes more efficient. Thus, when the new environment is working in much slower pace, it could become a conflict between the expatriates and locals. 2.4.5 Adaptability to new environment Expatriates and family often find it challenging to adjust with the routines. Trailing spouse might have problem in term of creating a home in rented accommodation with limited personal belongings and often find herself home alone whilst the partner departs on the business trip in as many weeks. This will cause the exhaustion the working partner as they try to balance work and home demands. The challenge of creating a meaningful life for the non-working partner which often involves overcoming a sense of having lost all personal identity which comes with losing the normal social, familial and work based cues. This will lead to homesickness and loneliness where they may long for the familiar and comfortable. Other than that, the children might have problem adjusting with school environment and new education system. Beside individual struggle, parental challenge such as providing a stable home environment for children, finding appropriate healthcare when it is needed and finding the app ropriate and suitable school for children are occurring as well. Repatriation 2.4.6 Lack of value placed on their international experiences. It appears that many global firms do not assign much value to the international experience. Therefore, expatriates expectation to career advancement are not usually realized. Many Western countries are placing increasing emphasis on standards and qualifications, credentials, and professionalization of careers. Individuals who have been working abroad may find themselves left behind and no longer even qualified for the level of work they had done prior to departure. 2.4.7 Re-establishing a professional network can also be challenging. Due to inadequate communication during the overseas assignment, an expatriate loses touch with changes that take place in the corporation. An expatriate might return to find that the company has changed beyond recognition and this will lead to career disaster. Even those professional colleagues who stayed in touch through an expatriates years abroad, may not feel comfortable speaking to the repatriates level of qualifications, especially if they havent formed a clear picture of the day- to-day responsibilities handled in the international workplace. 2.4.8 The expatriate and family members may also experience reverse culture shock. Many repatriates are not prepared for the culture shock that they experience upon returning home. Although culture shock is a challenge anticipated by most immigrants and expatriates as they prepare to move abroad, it can catch repatriates off guard. Many have struggled with adjusting to the weather, food, lifestyle, and even basic domestic chores and driving; especially if returning from a country where the norm was to hire domestic help. Repatriates may also find local biases offensive, particularly if targeted at a culture or group with which they have become quite familiar and which they have grown to appreciate.

Research Outline: Effects of DV on Children

Research Outline: Effects of DV on Children This dissertation will examine the evidence for the claim that witnessing domestic violence causes serious and lasting harm to children. As it would not be feasible to conduct primary research on this topic at the researchers current level of training, given the significant ethical issues involved in working with children and families in this context, it will consist of an extensive critical review of the literature on this topic. This body of evidence will be systematically reviewed to establish the current state of knowledge regarding: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The strength of the link between exposure to domestic violence and childrens à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Trauma symptoms à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Development à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Social functioning à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Internalising (eg. depression) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Externalising (eg. aggression, disruptive behaviour) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Academic performance à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The existence of mediating or moderating factors determining the level of damage caused by witnessing domestic violence, including à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Temperament à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Social support à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Genetic factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The prevalence of exposure to domestic violence in childhood. Preliminary review of the literature The prevalence of childhood exposure to domestic violence Intimate partner violence is disturbingly common in the UK: an analysis of recent data gathered by the NHS for various purposes found a lifetime prevalence rate of some experience of domestic violence of 13-31% among the general population of British women (Feder et al, 2009). In the US, Dong et al found (2004) that 24% of respondents (n = 2,081) indicated that they had been exposed to domestic violence while under the age of 18. These figures indicate that a high proportion of children will, at at least some point, witness acts of violence between (most commonly) their parents or caregivers in the home or another family setting. However, the usefulness of lifetime prevalence figures like this in assessing the real impact of domestic violence on children is rather questionable: these results do not distinguish adequately between individuals who witnessed a single incident, or very infrequent mild violence, and those who were repeatedly exposed to serious violence. More detailed data is required to address the question of how common prolonged exposure really is. A further problem with the analysis of data for the prevalence of childrens exposure to domestic violence is the high level of co-occurrence with other forms of maltreatment. A large US study (3,777 males and 4,411 females) found that 12.3% of men (n = 482) and 15.9% of women (n = 703; chi square of difference 15.9, p Witnessing parental aggression: its effects on child development There is strong evidence that aggression and violence between the childs parents or caregivers can have serious negative consequences even if the child is too young to understand: in particular, it has been suggested, very reasonably, that domestic violence negatively impacts the quality of maternal care as poor management of emotions and conflicts may transfer from the couple relationship to the mother-infant one (eg. Krisknakumar Buehler, 2000). Indeed, women who are in violently abusive relationships may even express more negative attributions about their unborn child while pregnant (Theran, Levendosky, Bogat, and Huth-Bocks, 2005), creating the conditions for an emotionally distant parenting style which can lead to a poor attachment between mother and infant. Of four studies of children aged 3-6 reviewed by Wolfe et al (2003), all but one found moderate to strong effects on internalizing and externalizing symptoms as a consequence of witnessing domestic violence; Levendosky et a l. (2002) also found a significant level of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a similar population, and Bogat and her colleagues described clinically significant trauma symptoms in one-year-old infants exposed to family violence (2006). Interestingly, however, in a sample of 7865 British children aged 5-16, Meltzer and his colleagues found that Witnessing severe domestic violence almost tripled the likelihood of children having conduct disorder but was not independently associated with emotional disorders (2009:491). The picture is yet further complicated by the finding that at least some mothers who suffer domestic violence in fact appear to compensate for this in ways which increase their availability to their children, showing heightened sensitivity and responsiveness (Letourneau, Fedick and Willms, 2007:649). Domestic violence and adolescent outcomes Given the complexity of the picture of the effect of witnessing domestic violence (and of having a caregiver who is a victim or perpetrator of it) which has already emerged, it is to be expected that the impact of this form of maltreatment on the eventual outcomes of children who are affected by it will also be far from easy to determine. High levels of conduct disorder and other adjustment and attitudinal problems in the adolescent children of battered women have been extensively described (Fantuzzo et al, 1991; Holden and Ritchie, 1991, and numerous later studies); these conduct problems have, however, bee n found to be amenable to interventions to improve mothers own support, and management of their children (eg. Jouriles et al, 2001). McFarlane and her colleagues found, worryingly, that in a sample of 330 children (including black, white and hispanic ethnicities), the mean internalizing behavior score for boys 6-11as well as girls and boys 12-18of abused mothers were not signific antly different from the clinical referral norms (2003:202), suggesting that the impact of witnessing serious domestic violence is enough to lead to clinically significant symptoms including suicidality and self-harming behaviours in adolescents. This indicates that, although the mechanisms by which it causes such great damage are as yet unclear, witnessing domestic violence which is either serious or prolonged needs to be treated as a major traumatic incident in a childs life. However, the prevalence of exposure like this is so great that intervening in the vast majority of cases where harm is being caused would be impossible; we are, furthermore, learning ever more about the factors which determine whether or not these experiences take a lasting toll, both biological and social. Domestic violence and the biology of trauma While only a small fraction of the children who suffer maltreatment are, as it were, fortunate enough only to witness domestic violence and not be subject to other forms of maltreatment, even in these cases evidence has been found that both [hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal] axis and sympathetic nervous system functioning were found to differ between children exposed to domestic violence and comparison children (Saltzman, Holden and Holahan, 2005), suggesting that exposure to this form of trauma has lasting biological as well as emotional consequences. While the exact effect of the kinds of changes which Saltzman and his colleagues found on later functioning is unknown, findings like this give cause for serious concern that exposure to domestic violence in early life may have consequences which include functional, particularly social, impairments which are difficult (although not impossible) to overcome. They may, too, have long term health effects: the prolonged effects of biological stress responses observed in PTSD sufferers have been linked to a variety of serious chronic illnesses (Boscarino, 2008), suggesting that children who witness violence may be at risk of ill health long after their exposure itself has ended. Future research seems likely to confirm that the hypersensitivity to verbal conflict displayed by the one-year-old (ie. pre-verbal) infants studied by DeJonghe and her colleagues (2005) has a neural basis; this high level of sensitivity may itself predispose individuals who were exposed to domestic violence as young children to displaying high levels of arousal in conflict situations, contributing to the emergence of aggression and conduct problems in later life. Rationale for undertaking this research It is clear from the preliminary review of the literature which has been presented above that exposure to domestic violence is a serious child welfare issue: it affects a large number of children, is frequently combined with other forms of maltreatment, and has been shown to have long-term negative effects on both psychosocial functioning and, more tentatively, on physical health. As such there is an obvious rationale for assessing the current state of research into this topic: there is now a large volume of work on this issue, although it has only been explored empirically since the 1980s, and new techniques such as the use of biomarkers and neuroimaging continue to add dramatically to our understanding of the risks and mechanisms of harm associated with witnessing domestic violence. Producing a broad systematic review of the aspects of this topic of greatest relevance to social policy and professional social work practice will help to inform responses to this grave threat to the we llbeing of thousands of children in the UK, and contribute to the formulation of effective responses to the challenges which family violence poses today. Outline research strategy As has been mentioned above, the research strategy which will be adopted here is that of a critical review of the literature, based on a structured search of major journal databases. This strategy is the most appropriate one due in part to the challenges of conducting experimental or observational research in families where domestic violence occurs; given the researchers lack of training in managing the care and welfare of vulnerable children and adults, a methodology of this kind would not be appropriate. As such, an approach which does not pose these ethical and practical problems has been adopted. A structured literature search methodology will be used to search the PUBMED, OVID and Web of Science databases; the terms used will be selected in order to identify literature which deals primarily with exposure to violence without the copresence of other forms of maltreatment. Due to the broad scope of this review, a meta-analytic approach would not be appropriate: where appropriate, meta-analyses of studies on this topic will be included, along with discussion of the individual studies included in them. Particular attention will be given to critical analysis of the effectiveness of the studies attempts to exclude the effect of confounding variables, including exposure to other forms of maltreatment and verbal aggression in the home, social factors and other issues.